Understanding Political Process Theory

Understanding Political Process Theory Also known as political opportunity theory, political process theory offers an explanation of the conditions, mindset, and actions that make a social movement successful in achieving its goals. According to this theory, political opportunities for change must first be present before a movement can achieve its objectives. Following that, the movement ultimately attempts to make change through the existing political structure and processes. Overview Political process theory (PPT) is considered the core theory of social movements and how they mobilize (work to create change). It was developed by  sociologists in the U.S. during the 1970s and 80s, in response to the Civil Rights, anti-war, and student movements of the 1960s. Sociologist Douglas McAdam, now a professor at Stanford University, is credited with first developing this theory via his study of the Black Civil Rights movement (see his book  Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970, published in 1982). Prior to the development of this theory, social scientists viewed members of social movements as irrational and crazed and framed them as deviants rather than political actors. Developed through careful research, political process theory disrupted that view and exposed its troubling elitist, racist, and patriarchal roots. Resource mobilization theory similarly offers an alternative view to this classical one. Since McAdam published his book outlining the theory, revisions to it have been made by him and other sociologists, so today it differs from McAdams original articulation.  As sociologist Neal Caren describes in his entry on the theory in the  Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, political process theory outlines five key components that determine the success or failure of a social movement: political opportunities, mobilizing structures, framing processes,  protest cycles, and contentious repertoires. Political opportunities  are the most important aspect of PPT, because according to the theory, without them, success for a social movement is impossible. Political opportunitiesor opportunities for intervention and change within the existing political systemexist when the system experiences vulnerabilities. Vulnerabilities in the system can arise for a variety of reasons but hinge on a crisis of legitimacy wherein the populace no longer supports the social and economic conditions fostered or maintained by the system. Opportunities might be driven by  the broadening of political enfranchisement to those previously excluded (like women and people of color, historically speaking), divisions among leaders, increasing diversity within political bodies and the electorate, and a loosening of repressive structures that previously kept people from demanding change.Mobilizing structures  refer to the  already existing organizations (political or otherwise) that are present among the c ommunity that wants change. These organizations serve as mobilizing structures for a social movement by providing membership, leadership, and communication and social networks to the budding movement. Examples include churches, community and nonprofit organizations, and student groups and schools, to name a few. Framing processes are carried out by leaders of an organization in order to allow the group or movement to  clearly and persuasively describe the existing problems, articulate why change is necessary, what changes are desired, and how one can go about achieving them. Framing processes foster the ideological buy-in among movement members, members of the political establishment, and the public at large that is necessary for a social movement to seize political opportunities and make change. McAdam and colleagues describe framing as conscious strategic efforts by groups of people to fashion shared understandings of the world and of themselves that legitimate and motivate collective action (see Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framing  [1996]).Protest cycles  are another important aspect of social movement success according to PPT. A protest cycle is a prolonged  period of time when opposition to the politi cal system and acts of protest are in a heightened state. Within this theoretical perspective, protests are important expressions of the views and demands of the mobilizing structures connected to the movement and are vehicles to express the ideological frames connected to the framing process. As such, protests serve to strengthen solidarity within the movement, to raise awareness among the general public about the issues targeted by the movement, and also serve to help recruit new members. The fifth and final aspect of PPT is contentious repertoires, which refers to the set of means through which the movement makes its claims. These typically include strikes, demonstrations (protests), and  petitions. According to PPT, when all of these elements are present, it is possible that a social movement will be able to make changes within the existing political system that will reflect the desired outcome. Key Figures There are many sociologists who study social movements, but key figures who helped create and refine PPT include Charles Tilly,  Peter Eisinger, Sidney Tarrow, David Snow, David Meyer, and Douglas McAdam. Recommended Reading To learn more about PPT see the following resources: From Mobilization to Revolution  (1978), by Charles Tilly.Political Process Theory,  Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, by Neal Caren (2007).Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency,  (1982) by Douglas McAdam.Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framing  (1996), by Douglas McAdam and colleagues. Updated  by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.

The History of Samurai in Japan

The History of Samurai in Japan Samurai were a class of highly skilled warriors that arose in Japan after the Taika reforms of A.D. 646, which included land redistribution and heavy new taxes meant to support an elaborate Chinese-style empire. The reforms forced many small farmers to sell their land and work as tenant farmers. Over time, a few large landholders amassed power and wealth, creating a feudal system similar to that of  medieval Europe. To defend their riches, Japanese feudal lords hired the first samurai warriors, or bushi. Early Feudal Era Some samurai were relatives of the landowners they protected, while others were simply hired swords. The samurai code emphasized loyalty to ones master- even over family loyalty. History shows that the most loyal samurai were usually family members or financial dependents of their lords. During the 900s, the weak emperors of the Heian Era lost control of rural Japan and the country was torn apart by revolt. The emperors power was soon restricted to the capital, and across the country, the warrior class moved in to fill the power vacuum. After years of fighting, the samurai established a military government known as the shogunate. By the early 1100s, the warriors had both military and political power over much of Japan. The weak imperial line received a fatal blow to its power in 1156 when Emperor Toba died without a clear successor. His sons, Sutoku and Go-Shirakawa, fought for control in a civil war known as the Hogen Rebellion of 1156. In the end, both would-be emperors lost and the imperial office lost all its remaining power. During the civil war, the Minamoto and Taira samurai clans rose to prominence. They fought one another during the Heiji Rebellion of 1160. After their victory, the Taira established the first samurai-led government and the defeated Minamoto were banished from the capital of Kyoto. Kamakura and Early Muromachi (Ashikaga) Periods The two clans fought once more in the Genpei War of 1180 to 1185, which ended in victory for the Minamoto. Following their victory, Minamoto no Yoritomo established the Kamakura Shogunate, retaining the emperor as a figurehead. The Minamoto clan ruled much of Japan until 1333. In 1268, an external threat appeared. Kublai Khan, the Mongol ruler of Yuan China, demanded tribute from Japan, and when Kyoto refused to comply the Mongols invaded. Fortunately for Japan, a typhoon destroyed the Mongols 600 ships, and a second invasion fleet in 1281 met the same fate. Despite such incredible help from nature, the Mongol attacks cost the Kamakura dearly. Unable to offer land or riches to the samurai leaders who rallied to Japans defense, the weakened shogun faced a challenge from Emperor Go-Daigo in 1318. After being exiled in 1331, the emperor returned and overthrew the shogunate in 1333. The Kemmu Restoration of imperial power lasted only three years. In 1336, the Ashikaga shogunate under Ashikaga Takauji reasserted samurai rule, though this new shogunate was weaker than that of the Kamakura. Regional constables called daimyo developed considerable power and meddled with the shogunates line of succession. Later Muromachi Period and Restoration of Order By 1460, the daimyos  were ignoring orders from the shogun and backing different successors to the imperial throne. When the shogun, Ashikaga Yoshimasa, resigned in 1464, a dispute between backers of his younger brother and his son ignited even more intense fighting among the daimyo. In 1467, this squabbling erupted into the decade-long Onin War, in which thousands died and Kyoto was burned to the ground. The war led directly to Japans Warring States Period, or  Sengoku. Between 1467 and 1573, various daimyos led their clans in a fight for national dominance, and nearly all of the provinces were engulfed in the fighting. The Warring States Period drew to a close in 1568 when the warlord Oda Nobunaga defeated three powerful daimyos, marched into Kyoto, and had his preferred leader, Yoshiaki, installed as shogun. Nobunaga spent the next 14 years subduing other rival daimyos and quelling rebellions by fractious Buddhist monks. His grand Azuchi Castle, constructed between 1576 and 1579, became of symbol of Japanese reunification. In 1582, Nobunaga was assassinated by one of his generals, Akechi Mitsuhide. Hideyoshi, another general, finished the unification and ruled as kampaku,  or regent, invading  Korea in 1592 and 1597. The Tokugawa Shogunate of the Edo Period Hideyoshi exiled the large Tokugawa clan from the area around Kyoto to the Kanto region in eastern Japan. By 1600, Tokugawa Ieyasu had conquered the neighboring daimyo from his castle stronghold at Edo, which would one day become Tokyo. Ieyasus son, Hidetada, became shogun of the unified country in 1605, ushering in about 250 years of relative peace and stability for Japan. The strong Tokugawa shoguns domesticated the samurai, forcing them to either serve their lords in the cities or give up their swords and farm. This transformed the warriors into a class of cultured bureaucrats. The Meiji Restoration and the End of the Samurai In 1868, the Meiji Restoration signaled the beginning of the end for the samurai. The Meiji system of constitutional monarchy included such democratic reforms as term limits for public officials and popular balloting. With public support, the Meiji Emperor did away with the samurai, reduced the power of the daimyo, and changed the capitals name from Edo to Tokyo. The new government created a conscripted army in 1873. Some of the officers were drawn from the ranks of former samurai, but more of the warriors found work as police officers. In 1877, angry ex-samurai revolted against the Meiji in the Satsuma Rebellion, but they later lost the Battle of Shiroyama, bringing the era of the samurai to an end. Culture and Weapons of the Samurai The culture of the samurai was grounded in the concept of bushido, or the way of the warrior, whose central tenets are honor and freedom from fear of death. A samurai was legally entitled to cut down any commoner who failed to honor him- or her- properly. The warrior was believed to be imbued with bushido spirit. He or she was expected to fight fearlessly and die honorably rather than surrender in defeat. Out of this disregard for death came the Japanese tradition of seppuku, in which defeated warriors- and disgraced government officials- would commit suicide with honor by disemboweling themselves with a short sword. Early samurai were archers, fighting on foot or horseback with extremely long bows (yumi), and used swords mainly for finishing off wounded enemies. After the Mongol invasions of 1272 and 1281, the samurai began to make greater use of swords, poles topped by curved blades called naginata, and spears. Samurai warriors wore two swords, the katana, and the wakizashi, which were banned from use by non-samurai in the late 16th century.

CRIMINAL LAW COURSEWORK Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

CRIMINAL LAW - Coursework Example In the UK, Discrimination Act of 1975 was altered to launch sexual irritation as a type of discrimination in 1986. It mentioned guidelines that if a boss treats someone less favourably on the ground that the defendants have refused and put forward any kind of harassment such as hostile, rape, humiliating and violating a person’s dignity in workplace among others, it would be judged as harassment. As in this case, the Sexual Offences Act, 2003 (SOA) and Sexual offences Act of 1956 are applicable. The Sexual Offence Act of 2003 sets offences for prosecution of proving absence at consent of sec. 1-4. The aforementioned offences are related to a person involved in a sexual activity. Sexual Violence in England often goes unreported by female and male victims. Amnesty International conducted a research, which found that 1/3rd of the public believe that a woman is answerable for being raped if she has behaved in an enticing way. Chances for having parallel mind-set also exist relatin g to what a woman was wearing at the time of harassment, quantity of alcohol that had been consumed and whether or not a woman had said no to the man. Prior to enactment of SOA, there was no as such statutory meaning of consent. Sec. 74 of this act states that a person contents to sexual activity, if he/she agrees to it as an option and holds the liberty and ability to make that choiceii. As per the case, Sec 75 and Sec 76 of SOA will be applicable on the boss, as the petitioner indicted the defendant of having non-consensual sex with the woman after an evening of intense alcoholic drinks. The boss when found guilty for the crime is liable for imprisonment, unless subsection 4 applies, which states that if a person is caught blameworthy under Sec 75 and Sec 76, then he/she will be prone to imprisonment for a period of maximum 6 months or a fine that does not surpass the statutory maximum

RNA silencing for the prevention of Phytophthora root rot in avocado Literature review

RNA silencing for the prevention of Phytophthora root rot in avocado - Literature review Example So, the scientists and the concerned people have found out a way to tackle this menace [2]. It is the use of RNA. The RNA is used to inhibit specific gene expression of the plants to prevent Phytophthora root rot in avocado plants. It was further found that the growing population is causing a sharp increase in the demand of the avocado across all over the world [3]. In order meet the rise in the demand, the farmers or the cultivators are using a number of elements to increase the production of the avocados. Overuse of the elements is further affecting the plants. The plants are getting affected by pests. Among them the rot root fungi is the most common form of the pests. Excessive spread of the fungi would destroy the crop and highly affect the cultivation of the crops so the scientists have discovered a number of methods which would prevent this. Among them RNA slicing is one of the most common methods for the prevention of Phytophthora root rot in avocado. According to a study, it was found that the Phytophthora root rot in avocado is primarily caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi, which is an economically important disease in the avocados around the world [1]. The crops when affected with fungi and gets harmed with Phytophthora root rot, it completely destroys the crops and leaving co crop for sell and make money out of it. In Australian agriculture, economic cost of losing were estimated in previous 20 years to be more than AUS$200 million per year [] and around US$44million in California annually []. The RNA silencing is used to increase the resistance of the avocado trees with the help of transgenic rootstocks. It is expected to reduce the incidences of fungi attack on the avocado plants. It was found that the fungi attack on the avocado trees could be prevented with the help of RNA interference process [4]. The authors further explain RNA interference as a cellular process where the RNA molecules

Essay --

Hikmat berbicara tentang kekayaan. Hikmat bicara tentang kekuatan. Mungkin beberapa dari kita bertanya-tanya, â€Å"bagaimana bisa hikmat sama dengan uang? Bagaimana bisa hikmat sama dengan perhiasan? Bagaimana bisa hikmat sama dengan takhta?† Kalian benar. Mereka memang tidak sama. Justru hikmat lebih berharga daripada itu semua. Menurut saya hikmat jauh lebih berharga dari apapun, karena dengan hikmat kita bisa menghasilkan uang, meraih kekayaan dan bisa berkuasa. Maka dari itu saya lebih menghargai hikmat daripada hal yang keliatannya berharga itu. Manfaat hikmat bisa saya lihat dari hidup seorang Gusdur, Presiden Indonesia yang ke-4. Ia menggantikan posisi seorang yang luar biasa yaitu B.J. Habibie yang bisa merakit pesawat. Hal tersebut memang luar biasa, tetapi saya lebih mengagumi hikmat serta wibawa yang ada di diri Gusdur (bernama asli Abdurrahman Wahid). Ia memberi contoh yang luar biasa bagi bangsa ini. Ia membunuh rasisme, menghentikan ‘perang’ antar agama. Ia berhasil mengubah pandangan tiap suku terhadap suku lain. Lewat hal ini, ia membuat setiap orang dari setiap kalang...

A Culture of Violence

A culture of violence may not always go noticed by people, especially those who are living within a community. The closeness of the people therein, together with a fixed mindset or opinion about the community, may prevent residents from realizing or accepting the fact that things have changed for the worse.Moreover, there is the possibility that people might get too complacent that they would no longer bother to identify key issues, such as those involving attitudes or cultures that need to be changed.Article SummaryThe story of Reena Virk, a fourteen year old, East Indian girl, illustrates this point. In â€Å"Reena Virk's short life and lonely death: swept away: a 14-year-  Ã‚  Ã‚   old girl beaten by the very teens she wanted as friends was left to the cold salt-water,† Cernetig tells a classic story of a girl coming from a minority group who, for this reason, desperately tries to fit in her new surroundings.Being taken from her home, she finds herself in a new but unfrie ndly environment where teenagers already knew each other. It did not help Reena at all that she was overweight. Thus, she got picked on by the other teenagers in her school.However, this classic story turned out worse than it should have. While the usual story ends happily, with the ugly duckling fitting in after sometime, this one ended, quite tragically, in Reena’s death.Unbeknownst to the local community, small groups of teenagers in the local schools had been forming gangs that are similar to those seen in television shows featuring Los Angeles gangs (Cernetig). Moreover, these teenagers appear to have been influenced by songs and shows that abound in mainstream media, which all glorify violence and the proliferation of gangs.Examples of these media are what Cernetig calls â€Å"gangsta-rap CDs (Cernetig).† This influence has gone to the extent of ending up with a murdered young girl, without anyone taking responsibility for it, despite the fact that several suspec ts have already been apprehended (Cernetig).The story gets more notorious because of the delay with which Reena’s body was found. One week has passed before the police were able to locate her body. Moreover, their theory on the case had been built largely on speculations based on stories that had circulated about town.AnalysisReena’s story raises several issues for critical analysis. The first one involves the media’s portrayal of an L.A. gang. This is a crucial issue in the story because this was apparently the main reason why people at very young ages are exposed to violence. Worse, the media is shown to be primarily responsible for building a certain image of a gang as cool or fun.

Social Contract Hypothesis By John Locke And Jean Jacques...

Social contract hypothesis, about as old as logic itself, is the perspective that persons ethical and/or political commitments are indigent upon an agreement or assention among them to shape the general public in which they live. Socrates uses something truly like a social contract contention to disclose to Crito why he must stay in jail and acknowledge capital punishment. In any case, social contract hypothesis is rightly connected with cutting edge moral and political hypothesis and is given its first full work and protection by Thomas Hobbes. After Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are the best known defenders of this tremendously powerful hypothesis, which has been a standout amongst the most prevailing speculations inside of good and political hypothesis all through the historical backdrop of the cutting edge West. In the twentieth century, moral and political hypothesis recovered philosophical force as a consequence of John Rawls Kantian adaptation of social contra ct hypothesis, and was trailed by new examinations of the subject by David Gauthier and others. All the more as of late, scholars from alternate points of view have offered new reactions of social contract hypothesis. Specifically, women s activists and race-cognizant rationalists have contended that social contract hypothesis is no less than a fragmented photo of our ethical and political lives, and may indeed cover a portion of the routes in which the agreement is itself parasitical upon theShow MoreRelatedThe Social Contract School Of The Mid 1700s1006 Words   |  5 Pagessway, then again, goes most specifically once more to what is known as the social contract school of the mid 1600s to the mid 1700s. 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However, the idea of Royal Authority through a contractual agreement of the people was first mooted by a clergy of the Church of England, Richard Hooker, in a treatise entitled Ecclesiastical Polity, published in 1394. Later, John Locke, followed by Jean-Jacques Rousseau put forward their own variants of the Social Contract Theory though the main ideaRead MorePolitical Philosophy and Plato Essay9254 Words   |  38 Pagessolve a problem, it would be broken down into a series of questions, the answers to which gradually distill the answer a person would seek. The influence of this approach is most strongly felt today in the use of the scientific method, in which hypothesis is the first stage. The development and practice of this method is one of Socrates most enduring contributions, and is a key factor in earning his mantle as the father of political philosophy, ethics or moral philosophy, and as a figurehead ofRead MoreOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pages. Organization Theory Challenges and Perspectives John McAuley, Joanne Duberley and Phil Johnson . This book is, to my knowledge, the most comprehensive and reliable guide to organisational theory currently available. What is needed is a text that will give a good idea of the breadth and complexity of this important subject, and this is precisely what McAuley, Duberley and Johnson have provided. They have done some sterling service in bringing together the very diverse strands of workRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesManagement Skills 8 †¢ Effective versus Successful Managerial Activities 8 †¢ A Review of the Manager’s Job 9 Enter Organizational Behavior 10 Complementing Intuition with Systematic Study 11 Disciplines That Contribute to the OB Field 13 Psychology 14 †¢ Social Psychology 14 †¢ Sociology 14 †¢ Anthropology 14 There Are Few Absolutes in OB 14 Challenges and Opportunities for OB 15 Responding to Economic Pressures 15 †¢ R esponding to Globalization 16 †¢ Managing Workforce Diversity 18 †¢ Improving Customer Service